A Review of the Impact of Wheel Load on Flexible Pavement Under Submerged Conditions
Article Sidebar
Main Article Content
Abstract
This paper presents a review of the impact of wheel load on the performance of flexible pavement under submerged conditions. Moisture ingress plays a major role in accelerating pavement failure. Flexible pavements represent a significant area of pavement engineering practice and research. Most pavements are flexible; they are supported by soil and have a flexible surface that can deform elastically under load. The review starts with the structural mechanics of flexible pavements, in which the behaviour of the different layers and the effects of wheel load distributions are discussed. It also explains how water seeps into the pavement and adversely affects its mechanical properties, leading to rutting, fatigue cracking, and material stripping. Analysing existing models, including analytical, finite element (FEM), and mechanistic-empirical, has emerged as the most effective for submerged pavement analysis, though each has limitations. However, incorporating climate resistance is crucial for predicting the performance of submerged pavement. A review of field and laboratory studies emphasises the necessity of obtaining empirical data to support model validation. In conclusion, it is important to incorporate measures to make pavements more moisture-resistant, adopt better modelling approaches, and address climate change. Future investigations should generate experimental data under submerged conditions and explore new materials and technologies to mitigate the effects of wheel load and moisture. This will help improve the performance of flexible pavements in waterlogged conditions.
Downloads
Article Details
Section
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
How to Cite
References
D. M. Dilip and G.L. Sivakumar, “System reliability-based design optimisation of flexible pavements using adaptive meta-modelling techniques, vol 367, 2023, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.130351
M. Asim, M. Ahmad, M. Alam, S. Ullah, M. J. Iqbal, and S. Ali, “Prediction of rutting in flexible pavements using finite element method,” Civil Engineering Journal, vol. 7, no. 8, pp. 1310–1326, 2021, doi: https://doi.org/10.28991/cej-2021-03091727
E. Asres, T. Ghebrab, and S. Ekwaro-Osire, “Framework for design of sustainable flexible pavement,” Infrastructures, vol. 7, no. 1, 2022, DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/infrastructures7010006
B. Ban, J. K. Shrestha, R. Pradhananga, and K. C. Shrestha, “Three-dimensional analysis of flexible pavement in Nepal under moving vehicular load,” Advances in Computational Design, vol. 7, no. 4, pp. 371–393, 2022, DOI: https://doi.org/10.12989/acd.2022.7.4.371
H. Alimohammadi, V.R. Schaefer and J. Zheng. Performance of geosynthetic-reinforced flexible pavement: A review of full-scale field studies. Int. Pavement Res. Techol.14, 30-42 (2021) DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/S42947-020-0019-Y
S. Bhandari, X. Luo, and F. Wang, “Understanding the effects of structural factors and traffic loading on flexible pavement performance,” International Journal of Transportation Science and Technology, vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 258–272, 2023, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijtst.2022.02.004
National Highway Authority, Pavement Design Report (Revised) Peshawar-Torkham Section-I Consultancy Services for Feasibility Study and Preliminary Design of Peshawar-Kabul Motorway, Associated Consultancy Centre (Pvt.) Ltd. (ACC), SAMBO Engineering Co. Ltd., ACE-TES & Assign, Sept. 2018. http://consultacc.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/List-of-Projects-Seprated-4.pdf
Y. Deng, X. Luo, Y. Zhang, and R. L. Lytton, “Evaluation of flexible pavement deterioration conditions using deflection profiles under moving loads,” Transportation Geotechnics, vol. 26, 2020, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trgeo.2020.100434
V. Gladkikh, E. Korolev, V. Gladkikh, and I. Sukhachev, “Viscosity of plasticised sulphur-extended asphalt: two-factor sequential optimisation,” MATEC Web of Conferences, vol. 106, p. 03013, 2017, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/201710603013
R. Khan, J. Grenfell, and A. Collop, “Micromechanical modelling of typical Dense Bitumen Macadam (DBM) from laboratory testing and X-ray Computed Tomography (CT),” Construction and Building Materials, vol. 77, pp. 1–6, 2015, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.12.028. The works remain significant, see the declaration
Konstantinos Gkyrtis “Pavement analysis with the consideration of unbound granular material non-linearity Department of Civil Engineering, Democritus University of Thrace (D.U.Th), 67100 Xanthi, Greece (2023) DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/designs7060142.
S. Rahman, A. Ahmed and S. Erlingsson (2025) “Responses of a thin flexible pavement loaded with tyres of various dimensions and configurations, Road Materials and Pavement Design, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14680629.2025.2489019.
N.D.Beskou and E.V. Muho “Review on dynamic response of road pavement to moving vehicle loads; DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solidyn.2023.108249.
M. Xianyong; S. Lingxiao; “S. Chundi “Probability distribution of asphalt pavement responses and performance”, Applied Science; Basel vol. 13, iss. 2, (2023): 715. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/app13020715
A.K. Singh and J.P. Sahoo “Rutting prediction models for flexible pavement structure: A review of historical and recent developments. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtte.2021.04.003
S. Elhamrawy, M. Moharram and U. Heneash “The effect of truck axle loads and tyre pressure on the responses of flexible pavement” article 16, vol.45, issue 3. DOI: https://doi.org/10.21608/erjm.2022.145003.1187.
W. Jongxu, D. Zejiao, X. Ke, U. Shafi, W. Donghao and L. Yiheng. Numerical simulation of mechanical response analysis of asphalt pavement under dynamic loads with non-uniform tyre pavement contract stresses. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpnbuildmat.2022.129711.
M. Asim, R. Khan, A. Ahmed, and Q. Ali, “Numerical modelling of nonlinear behaviour of asphalt concrete,” International Journal of Advanced Engineering Research and Development, vol. 5, no. 10, pp. 1–10, Oct. 2018, DOI: https://doi.org/10.21090/IJAERD.85114.
A. K Singh and J. P. Sahoo, “Rutting prediction models for flexible pavement structures: a review of historical and recent developments,” Journal of Traffic and Transportation Engineering (English Edition), vol. 8, no. 3, pp. 315–338, 2021, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JTTE.2021.04.003.
T. M. Tiza, O. Mogbo, S. K. Singh, N. Shaik, and M. P. Shettar, “Bituminous pavement sustainability improvement strategies,” Energy Nexus, vol. 6, p. 100065, Jun. 2022, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nexus.2022.100065
A. Tiliouine, K. Sandjak, C. Y. Ali Haimoud, and M. Hammoutène, “Effects of interface condition on performance of road pavements with non-linear granular materials,” Advanced Materials Research, vol. 587, pp. 102–106, 2012, DOI: https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.587.102, works remain significant, see the declaration
S. Varma and M. E. Kutay, “Viscoelastic nonlinear multilayered model for asphalt pavements,” Journal of Engineering Mechanics, vol. 142, no. 7, pp. 1–11, 2016, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)EM.1943-7889.0001095.
P. J. Yoo, “Flexible pavement dynamic responses analysis and validation for various tyre configurations,” PhD dissertation, Univ. of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Illinois, USA, 2007. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Flexible-Pavement-Dynamic-Response-Analysis-and-for-Yoo/a34318e66e58b920779aa263cb66fc66e5f139af. The works remain significant, see the declaration
V. A. Sawant, V. A. Patil, and K. Deb, "Effect of vehicle-pavement interaction on dynamic response of rigid pavements," Geomechanics and Geoengineering: An International J., vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 31–39, 2011.
Z. Lu and H. Yao, "Effects of the dynamic vehicle-road interaction on the pavement vibration due to road traffic," J. of Vibroengineering, vol. 15, no. 3, pp. 1291–1301, 2013. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/17486025.2010.521591. The works remain significant, see the declaration
P. D. Hunt and J. M. Bunker, Analysis of Unbound Granular Pavement Deterioration for use in Asset Management Modelling: A Literature Review, State of Queensland (Department of Main Roads), 2001. https://eprints.qut.edu.au/215882/. The works remain significant, see the declaration
S. Yang, S. Li, and Y. Lu, "Investigation on dynamical interaction between a heavy vehicle and road pavement," Vehicle System Dynamics, vol. 48, no. 8, pp. 923–944, 2010.DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00423110903243166. The works remain significant, see the declaration
A. T. Papagiannakis and M. S. Gujarathi, A Roughness Model Describing Heavy Vehicle-Pavement Interaction, Washington State Transportation Commission Final Research Report No. WA-RD 372.1, 1995. https://www.wsdot.wa.gov/research/reports/fullreports/372.1.pdf. Works remain significant; see the declaration
A. P. Wu and P. A. Shen, "Dynamic analysis of concrete pavements subjected to moving loads," J. of Transportation Engineering, vol. 122, no. 5, pp. 367–373, 1996. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-947X(1996)122:5(367), The works remain significant, see the declaration
M. S. Mamlouk, "General outlook of pavement and vehicle dynamics," J. of Transportation Engineering, vol. 123, no. 6, pp. 515–517, 1997.DOI: https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-947X(1997)123:6(515), The works remain significant, see the declaration
A. Rutka and J. Sapragonas, "The role of a tyre in vehicle and road interaction," Transport, vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 39–45, 2002. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/16483480.2002.10414009. The works remain significant, see the declaration
G. Lombaert and G. Degrande, "The experimental validation of a numerical model for the prediction of the vibrations in the free field produced by road traffic," J. of Sound and Vibration, vol. 262, no. 2, pp. 309–331, 2003. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-460X(02)01048-9, The works remain significant, see the declaration
H. H. Nassif and M. Liu, "Analytical modelling of bridge-road-vehicle dynamic interaction system," J. of Vibration and Control, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 215–241, 2004.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1077546304033950. The works remain significant, see the declaration
A. T. Papagiannakis, H. M. Zelelew, and B. Muhunthan, "A wavelet interpretation of vehicle-pavement interaction," International J. of Pavement Engineering, vol. 8, no. 3, pp. 245–252, 2007.DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10298430701309378. The works remain significant, see the declaration
V. Sawant, "Dynamic analysis of rigid pavement with vehicle-pavement interaction," International J. of Pavement Engineering, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 63–72, 2009. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10298430802342716. The works remain significant, see the declaration
X. M. Shi and C. S. Cai, "Simulation of dynamic effects of vehicles on pavement using a 3D interaction model," J. of Transportation Engineering, vol. 135, no. 10, pp. 736–744, 2009. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)TE.1943-5436.0000045, The works remain significant, see the declaration
K. M. Xia, "A finite element model
for tyre/pavement interaction: Application to predicting pavement damage," International J. of Pavement Research and Technology, vol. 3, no. 3, pp. 135–141, 2010.https://www.proquest.com/openview/bfadfd11e7d1d14a9e2506ccbcae3f8d/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=60371.The works remain significant, see the declaration
A. Taheri, E. J. Obrien, and A. C. Collop, "Pavement damage model incorporating vehicle dynamics and a 3D pavement surface," International J. of Pavement Engineering, vol. 13, no. 4, pp. 374–383, 2012. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10298436.2012.655741. The works remain significant, see the declaration
G. Wang, R. Roque, and D. Morian, "Effects of surface rutting on near-surface pavement responses based on a two-dimensional axle-tire-pavement interaction finite-element model," J. of Materials in Civil Engineering, vol. 24, no. 11, pp. 1388–1395, 2012.DOI: https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0000526,
The works remain significant, see the declaration
P. Cao, C. Zhou, D. Feng, Y. Zhao, and B. Huang, "A 3D direct vehicle-pavement coupling dynamic model and its application on analysis of asphalt pavement dynamic response," Mathematical Problems in Engineering, pp. 1–8, 2013.DOI: https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/394704. The works remain significant, see the declaration
V. A. Patil, V. A. Sawant, and K. Deb, "2-D finite element analysis of rigid pavement considering dynamic vehicle-pavement interaction effects," Applied Mathematical Modelling, vol. 37, no. 3, pp. 1282–1294, 2013. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apm.2012.03.034, The works remain significant, see the declaration
V. A. Patil, V. A. Sawant, and K. Deb, "3D finite-element dynamic analysis of rigid pavement using infinite elements," International J. of Geomechanics, vol. 13, no. 5, pp. 533–544, 2013. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GM.1943-5622.0000255, The works remain significant, see the declaration
Y. Liu and Z. P. You, "Fundamental study on pavement-wheel interaction forces through discrete element simulation," International J. of Pavement Research and Technology, vol. 6, no. 6, pp. 689–695, 2013. DOI: https://doi.org/10.6135/ijprt.org.tw/2013.6(6).689, The works remain significant, see the declaration
H. Ding, Y. Yang, L. Q. Chen, and S. P. Yang, "Vibration of vehicle-pavement coupled system based on a Timoshenko beam on a nonlinear foundation," J. of Sound and Vibration, vol. 333, no. 24, pp. 6623–6636, 2014.l/, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsv.2014.07.016, works remain significant, see the declaration
N. D. Beskou, S. V. Tsinopoulos, and D. D. Theodorakopoulos, "Dynamic elastic analysis of 3-D flexible pavements under moving vehicles: A unified FEM treatment," Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, vol. 82, pp. 63–72, 2016.DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2015.11.013
L. You, K. Yan, Y. Hu, and D. G. Zollinger, "Spectral element solution for transversely isotropic elastic multi-layered structures subjected to axisymmetric loading," Computers and Geotechnics, vol. 72, pp. 67–73, 2016. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compgeo.2015.11.004
S. Chen, D. Wang, J. Yi, and D. Feng, "Analytical solution and distribution characteristics of mechanical response for elastic half-space body under hyperbolic paraboloid vertical load," in Functional Pavement Design, pp. 729–739, 2016. https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.1201/9781315643274-81/analytical-solution-distribution-characteristics-mechanical-response-elastic-half-space-body-hyperbolic-paraboloid-vertical-load-songqiang-chen-dongsheng-wang-junyan-yi-decheng-feng
L. You, K. Yan, Y. Hu, and W. Ma, "Impact of interlayer on the anisotropic multi-layered medium overlaying viscoelastic layer under axisymmetric loading," Applied Mathematical Modelling, vol. 61, pp. 726–743, 2018. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apm.2018.05.020
A. A. Adili, “Study of Surface Drainage Runoff and Vertical Drainage of Flexible Pavement under Laboratory Wheel Track Test,” Civil Engineering Research Journal, vol. 1, no. 1, Jul. 2017,
DOI: https://doi.org/10.19080/cerj.2017.01.555553
H. Wang, M. Li, N. Garg, and J. Zhao, “Multi-wheel gear loading effect on load-induced failure potential of airfield flexible pavement,” International Journal of Pavement Engineering, vol. 21, no. 6, pp. 805–816, Aug. 2018, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10298436.2018.1511783
Y. Li, G. Song, and J. Cai, “Mechanical Response Analysis of Airport Flexible Pavement Above Underground Infrastructure Under Moving Wheel Load,” Geotechnical and Geological Engineering, vol. 35, no. 5, pp. 2269–2275, May 2017, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10706-017-0242-8
F. Jebur, M. Fattah, and A. Abduljabbar, “Function and Application of Geogrid in Flexible Pavement under Dynamic Load,” Engineering and Technology Journal, vol. 39, no. 8, pp. 1231–1241, Aug. 2021, DOI: https://doi.org/10.30684/etj.v39i8.1771
M. Tiza, “Sustainability in the civil engineering and construction industry: A review,” Journal of Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies, 2022, DOI: https://doi.org/10.14744/jscmt.2022.11
M. Y. Fattah, Shayma’a Abd. El-Ghany, and A. S. Abdaljabbar, “Analysis of the Performance of Flexible Pavement under the Effect of Wheel and Thermal Loads,” Maǧallaẗ al-handasaẗ wa-al-tiknūlūǧiyā, vol. 28, no. 18, pp. 5782–5802, Sep. 2010, DOI: https://doi.org/10.30684/etj.28.18.14
C. Vale, “Influence of vertical load models on flexible pavement response—an investigation,” International Journal of Pavement Engineering, vol. 9, no. 4, pp. 247–255, Aug. 2008, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10298430701444977, works remain significant, see the declaration
M. Y. Abu-Farsakh and Q. Chen, “Evaluation of geogrid base reinforcement in flexible pavement using cyclic plate load testing,” International Journal of Pavement Engineering, vol. 12, no. 3, pp. 275–288, Jun. 2011, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10298436.2010.549565, works remain significant; see the declaration
K. Huang, I. Onifade, and B. Birgisson, “Calibration of mechanics-based pavement predictive framework for top-down cracking performance of flexible pavement considering wheel wander effect,” Construction and Building Materials, vol. 306, p. 124792, Nov. 2021, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.124792
L. You, K. Yan, Y. Hu, J. Liu, and D. Ge, “Spectral element method for dynamic response of transversely isotropic asphalt pavement under impact load,” Road Materials and Pavement Design, vol. 19, no. 1, pp. 223–238, Sep. 2016, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14680629.2016.1230513
H. Abbas and K. Mahmud, “A parametric study of concrete runway pavement layers depression under impact load,” Vestnik MGSU, no. 9, pp. 1206–1217, Sep. 2022, DOI: https://doi.org/10.22227/1997-0935.2022.9.1206-1217
P. Ren, Z.-L. Chen, L. Li, W. Gong, and J. Li, “Dynamic shakedown behaviours of flexible pavement overlying saturated ground under moving traffic load considering the effect of pavement roughness,” Computers and Geotechnics, vol. 168, p. 106134, Apr. 2024, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compgeo.2024.106134.