From Emergency Reconstruction to Adaptive Recovery: A Mechanics-Based Review of Circular and Resilience-Oriented Structural Design for Post Seismic and Post-Conflict Contexts
Article Sidebar
Main Article Content
Abstract
Responding to seismic events and armed conflicts is among the most challenging environments for structural engineering. Design choices have long-term safety, recovery time, total resource use and environmental consequences. Modern seismic codes have had great benefit in avoiding collapse and death, but provide minimal guidance on how to manage damage, control residual deformation, enable reparability, and restore functional operations after the event—parameters that dictate the usability of the structure for the remaining portion of its life and that contribute to the life-cycle sustainability of the structure. Therefore, this article presents a mechanics-based view of circularity in structural engineering, treating it not as a standalone sustainability objective but rather as an emergent property of structural performance under extreme loading, including the localisation of damage, the limitation of residual deformations, and the enabling of rapid and resource-efficient repair and reuse of components. Using a PRISMA-informed narrative review process, 35 peer-reviewed articles published between 2015 and 2025 provided insights into resilience-based seismic design, building systems, modular/prefabricated buildings, and circular material strategies. This review will assess how the cyclical responses to damage inflicted by both earthquake and military conflict along with the methods used to recover from them are dependent on a cyclical response characteristic, and examines the significant differences that exist between recovery from damage caused by an earthquake and recovery from damage caused by a military conflict, in addition to the new challenges presented by blast damage, interruption of governance, and extended timeframes for rebuilding. This study develops an integrative approach that combines structural mechanics, recovery performance, and circular-economy principles into a cohesive model to identify critical research needs, performance metrics, and codification requirements as we move from an emergency recovery phase to a phase that supports adaptive recovery, repair-based, and resilient structural designs.
Downloads
Article Details
Section
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
How to Cite
References
Akanbi, L. A., Oyedele, L. O., Akinade, O. O., Ajayi, A. O., Delgado, J. M. D., Bilal, M., & Bello, S. A.
(2019). Salvaging building materials in a circular economy. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 146, 435–450. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2017.10.026
Feng, R., Xu, L., Wu, P., & Zhong, S. (2021). Seismic performance of steel modular buildings with inter-module connections. Engineering Structures, 227, 111392. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2020.111392
Marini, A., Belleri, A., Brunesi, E., & Nascimbene, R. (2019). Seismic resilience of precast structures with dissipative connections. Engineering Structures, 179, 117–131. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2018.10.062
Bernal, S. A., Provis, J. L., Walkley, B., San Nicolas, R., Gehman, J. D., Brice, D. G., Kilcullen, A., Duxson, P., & van Deventer, J. S. J. (2016). Gel nanostructure in alkali-activated binders. Cement and Concrete Research, 83, 41–54.DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2016.01.006
Shrikant M. Harle, Samruddhi Sagane, Nilesh Zanjad, P.K.S. Bhadauria, Harshwardhan P. Nistane. (2024). Advancing seismic resilience: Focus on building design techniques, Structures, Volume 66, 106432, ISSN 2352-0124,
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.istruc.2024.106432.
Pedro, D., de Brito, J., & Evangelista, L. (2019). Structural concrete with recycled aggregates: A review. Construction and Building Materials, 201, 219–238.DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.12.065
Çetin, S., & Kirchherr, J. (2025). The Build Back Circular Framework: Circular Economy strategies for post-disaster reconstruction and recovery. Circular Economy and Sustainability, 5, 1689–1726. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s43615-024-00495-y
García, R., et al. (2025). Moving toward resilience and sustainability in the built environment. Structural Safety, 113, 102449. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.strusafe.2024.102449
Cao, X.-Y., Feng, D.-C., Li, Y., & Zhang, J. (2025). A resilience–displacement–force converted design framework for the external substructure in seismic retrofitting. Journal of Building Engineering, 113, 114126. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2025.114126
Cimellaro, G. P., Renschler, C., Reinhorn, A. M., & Arendt, L. (2016). PEOPLES framework. Engineering Structures, 122, 76–91. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2016.05.028
Karaki, G., & Hawileh, R. A. (2025). Integrated Building Retrofit for Seismic Resilience and Environmental Sustainability: A Critical Review. Buildings, 15(20), 3800. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15203800
Froozanfar, M., Moradi, S., Kianoush, R., Speicher, M. S., & Di Sarno, L. (2024). Review of self-centring rocking systems for earthquake-resistant building structures: State of the art. Journal of Building Engineering, 84, 108607. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2024.108607
Fathieh, A., Mercan, O., & Astaneh-Asl, A. (2018). Seismic performance of modular steel frames. Engineering Structures, 172, 305–320. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2018.06.031
Fragiacomo, M., Amadio, C., & Macorini, L. (2018). Seismic response of timber–concrete systems. Engineering Structures, 172, 430–445. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2018.06.064
Ghisellini, P., Cialani, C., & Ulgiati, S. (2016). Circular economy review. Journal of Cleaner Production, 114, 11–32.DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.09.007
Hosseini, P., & Al-Tabbaa, A. (2020). Alkali-activated materials. Cement and Concrete Research, 132, 106028.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2020.106028
Kirchherr, J., Reike, D., & Hekkert, M. (2017). Circular economy definitions. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 127, 221–232.DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2017.09.005
Koliou, M., van de Lindt, J. W., McAllister, T. P., Ellingwood, B. R., & Dillard, M. (2020). State of resilience research. Journal of Structural Engineering, 146(8), 04020001.DOI: https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)ST.1943-541X.0002596
Zohourian, M., Pamidimukkala, A., Kermanshachi, S., & Almaskati, D. (2025). Modular construction: A comprehensive review. Buildings, 15(12):2020. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15122020
Li, L., Xiao, J., Poon, C. S., & Wang, Y. (2017). Recycled aggregate concrete. Construction and Building Materials, 142, 604–613.DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.03.064
Kim, T., & Yi, S. (2024). Accelerated system-reliability-based disaster resilience analysis for structural systems. (structural reliability) – arXiv DOI: https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2404.13321
Nastri, E., & Pisapia, A. (2025). Performance-based seismic design (PBSD): Evolution, applications, and future directions. Applied Sciences, 15(5):2254. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/app15052254
Pei, S., van de Lindt, J. W., & Barbosa, A. R. (2019). CLT seismic design. Journal of Structural Engineering, 145(3), 04019007.DOI: https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)ST.1943-541X.0002291
Pomponi, F., & Moncaster, A. (2017). Circular economy in construction. Journal of Cleaner Production, 143, 710–718. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.12.092
Priestley, M. J. N., Sritharan, S., Conley, J. R., & Pampanin, S. (2017). Rocking wall systems. ACI Structural Journal, 104(6), 713–722. DOI: https://doi.org/10.14359/18955
Provis, J. L. (2018). Alkali-activated materials. Cement and Concrete Research, 114, 40–48. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2017.02.009
Scrivener, K. L., John, V. M., & Gartner, E. M. (2018). Eco-efficient cements. Cement and Concrete Research, 114, 2–26.DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2018.03.015
Wu, Y., Wang, L., & Zhou, H. (2024). Exploring seismic resilience in frame structures through advanced numerical modelling and dynamic nonlinear analysis of recycled aggregate concrete. Structures, 63, 106420. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.istruc.2024.106420
Zhang, Y., Zhao, B., & Lu, X. (2021). Seismic behaviour of modular buildings. Engineering Structures, 228, 111507.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2020.111507
Reed, T., Terzic, V., & Villanueva, P. K. (2021). Recovery-based design of buildings for seismic resilience. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 65, 102556. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2021.102556
Rezk, J., Pons-Valladares, O., & Muñoz-Blanc, C. (2025). Evaluating sustainability in post-conflict reconstruction: Blast-damaged buildings in Syria. Buildings, 15(3), 369. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15030369
Molina Hutt, C., Hulsey, A. M., Kakoty, P., Deierlein, G. G., & Monfared, A. E. (2021). Toward functional recovery performance in the seismic design of modern tall buildings. Earthquake Spectra. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/87552930211033620
Seeberg, H. R., Haakonsen, S. M., & Luczkowski, M. (2024). Systematic mapping of the circular economy in structural engineering. Buildings, 14(4), 1165. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14041165
Bektaş, N., & Shmlls, M. (2024). Earthquake-induced waste repurposing: Sustainable solutions for post-earthquake debris management. Buildings, 14(4), 948. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14040948
Bing Xia, Jianzhuang Xiao, Shaofan Li (2022). Sustainability-based reliability design for reuse of concrete components, Structural Safety, Volume 98, 102241, ISSN 0167-4730,DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.strusafe.2022.102241